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AI has been expected to remove some of the bottom rungs on the corporate ladder. As software absorbs routine analysis, research, drafting, and administrative work, companies have had fewer reasons to hire large classes of junior employees. Recent evidence suggests that assumption may be changing. Some major employers are hiring again, and companies using AI extensively are reporting greater demand for entry-level workers.

KPMG (Klynveld Peat Marwick Goerdeler) offers an especially interesting example. The professional services company recently brought nearly 1,000 interns to its Lakehouse training center in Orlando for intensive development in critical thinking, judgment, communication, and interpersonal skills. KPMG’s own research found that interns ranked critical thinking and problem solving as the most important capabilities they wanted to demonstrate while working alongside AI.

KPMG may be responding to a problem that extends far beyond accounting and consulting. Entry-level jobs have always produced more than inexpensive labor. They provide the experiences through which organizations create their next generation of experts, managers, and decision makers.

AI can remove the work that teaches people how to work

Consider what traditionally happens during the first few years of a career. Junior employees research unfamiliar problems, prepare first drafts, make mistakes, receive corrections, observe customers, and explain their reasoning to people with greater expertise. Much of that work can look inefficient because learning itself is inefficient.

Generative AI changes the calculation. A senior employee who once delegated research or preliminary analysis to a junior colleague can now ask an AI system to produce it in seconds. The immediate productivity gain is obvious. The developmental cost is much harder to see.

A recent study of software engineers identified precisely this risk. Researchers interviewed junior and senior software engineers and found evidence that generative AI was absorbing some of the work through which novices traditionally developed expertise. They described the loss of “productive struggle,” the difficult process of working through problems that helps beginners construct the knowledge they later need to solve more complicated ones.

The study is small, involving 14 interviews in South Korea, so its findings should not be treated as proof of what is happening across every profession. It raises an important organizational question, however. If AI continually transfers entry-level work from beginners to experienced employees working with machines, where will future experienced employees come from?

Productivity today can create a capability problem tomorrow

Organizations naturally measure AI by what it saves. A task takes 20 minutes instead of two hours. One employee produces what previously required three. Projects move faster and staffing requirements decline.

Those measures capture current output. They rarely capture the expertise the organization would have developed while producing that output. A junior analyst struggling through an assignment may be slower than AI, but that assignment is simultaneously producing an analysis and a more capable analyst.

KPMG appears to recognize that distinction. Its Lakehouse is explicitly designed as a learning and development environment, and the company says it is expanding immersive, in-person experiences as AI increases the importance of human judgment and other skills. KPMG has also emphasized mentorship, hands-on work, feedback, and real-world application as part of preparing employees to work alongside AI.

Redesign entry-level work around learning

Companies do not need to preserve routine work simply because generations of employees learned from doing it. They do need to identify what developmental function that work performed before automating it away.

That means designing early-career roles around experiences AI cannot easily provide by itself. Junior employees can frame problems before prompting an AI system, verify its work, explain why they accepted or rejected its recommendations, interact directly with customers, observe experienced colleagues making consequential decisions, and assume progressively greater responsibility for outcomes.

This also changes what leaders should measure. The fastest junior employee may be the person who delegates the most thinking to AI. A more useful question is whether that employee is becoming capable of handling increasingly difficult work with less supervision.

AI can make an organization more productive while simultaneously weakening its ability to reproduce expertise. Those outcomes will not appear on the same dashboard or on the same timetable. KPMG’s investment in interns offers a useful reminder that organizations still need beginners, because somewhere inside today’s entry-level workforce are the seasoned experts they will depend on tomorrow.

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Only a fraction of the over 2,500 missing are turning up among the dead, underscoring a bleak reality: The death toll is likely to keep rising for days to come.

Five days after an angry deluge tore through the mountain passes of Nepal, family members arriving after long journeys looked for something — anything — that could identify their loved ones amid the hundreds of mangled bodies.

In one hall in the downstream city of Bharatpur, men and women stared at a small television screen, watching a slide show of recovered remains in complete silence.

Next door, another government hall turned makeshift morgue housed the 270 sets of remains whose photos had been flashing on that screen. Nearly all remained unidentified.

Bharatpur, over 100 miles from where the floods first hit, had no capacity to preserve the corpses that washed up to its riverbanks, and could not keep them any longer. They were being transported to a forest for a mass burial before darkness took over the city.

At the burial spot, security forces in protective gear offloaded the bodies one by one onto stretchers, as cameras documented each step. Nearby, rows of metal numbered signs stuck into concrete-filled pots — the markers for each grave — awaited.

Only a fraction of the missing are turning up among the dead, underscoring a bleak reality: The death toll is likely to keep rising.

As of Sunday night local time, nearly 800 bodies had been found. More than 2,500 people were still missing, with hopes dimming they would be found alive. The initial 72 hours after a disaster are usually seen as critical to a rescue operation.

The devastating flood swept through northern Nepal and Tibet on Wednesday after part of a glacier sheared off a mountain face, and its fall created such seismic force that officials initially believed it was an earthquake. The massive wall of water and mud it created swept up villagers, hydropower workers and hundreds of tourists and travelers from nearly three dozen countries on religious pilgrimages. Tens of thousands of people remain in need of relief, with entire towns wiped out, and roads, bridges and communication lines destroyed.

The bulk of the ongoing rescue effort has focused on the tunnels of several major hydropower projects in Rasuwa, which saw some of the earliest and fiercest damage in Nepal, and in Nuwakot, just downstream.

Through a night of rain, the army had tried to drill its way to tunnels buried under debris and mud. By Sunday afternoon, with support from Indian rescue teams, they had managed to find an opening to one tunnel, which they found brimming with water, according to Brig. Gen. Raja Ram Basnet, the army spokesman. A second tunnel has proved more difficult to locate an opening to, he said.

“The Nepali Army has been using thermal drones to search for signs of life,” he said. “But there have been no indications of survivors so far.”

The force of the deluge was such that nearly a dozen bodies were swept hundreds of miles away and found in India.

When the remains started washing up on the riverbanks of the Chitwan district, dozens of miles downstream from where the floods first hit, the officials were immediately overwhelmed.

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Officers at a mass burial of unidentified victims in the Devghat forest area of Bharatpur, Nepal, on Sunday.

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In the 17th century, physician Samuel Collins observed a mesh around each organ, which he called a “common Vest” made of “curious well-spun Threads… wonderfully interwoven with each other”. The “remanent spaces”, he noted, were filled with a “concreted Animal Liquor”.

Over the following centuries, the purpose of these structures was thought to be purely architectural. The vest, known today as fascia, offers a kind of girding that holds our organs in place; the gaps filled with that “animal liquor” – called interstitial fluid – provide a kind of shock absorber that allows our organs to slide freely as we move, without bruising.

We now know that those pockets of fluid are far more important than this. Emerging research suggests they form an interconnected network called the interstitium that provides an important channel of communication between and inside our tissues. And that is set to cause a quiet revolution in medicine, changing how we think about everything from muscle pain and the microbiome to the spread of cancerous tumours across the body.

According to some scientists, it may even offer a modern explanation for concepts in traditional Chinese medicine, including the fundamental life force “qi”.

The discovery of body-wide channels

The interstitium’s basic anatomy certainly suggests some structural role. The extracellular matrix within it provides structural support for pockets of fluid, with threads made of collagen, which create a strong scaffold, and elastin, which act like tiny bungee cords and offer flexibility. The interstitial fluid coursing through gaps in this matrix comprises around 12 per cent of our body weight and contains hyaluronic acid, a large molecule that forms a gel in water, perfect for cushioning delicate tissue.

The mainstream view was that each organ and muscle is sealed off in its own compartment, with its own, isolated interstitium. While a few researchers, such as molecular engineer Melody Swartz at the University of Chicago, have long been interested in how the fluid flows within the different compartments, there was little evidence that they were interconnected.

That was partly due to a serious practical limitation: when you take tissue samples to study under a microscope, the interstitial fluid drains away and the collagen fibres that give the cavities their structure collapse in on themselves. This made it very hard to characterise the space.

That changed with a groundbreaking study in 2018, using a new procedure that combines a laser with an endoscope to build microscopic images of tissue in a living body. This enabled Neil Theise, professor of pathology at the New York University Grossman School of Medicine, and his colleagues to follow the movement of a fluorescent dye injected during pancreatic surgery. This revealed a series of channels and cavities where they had expected to find dense connective tissue, suggesting that the interstitium was larger and more intricate than previously recognised. Widening their search to other organs, their detailed images provided the strongest evidence yet that it comprised a network spanning the whole body.

“If this organ is present in every tissue and other organ the way the cardiovascular and lymphatic systems are, then we have an incomplete understanding of the entire body,” Theise said at the time. “I don’t think there’s anything that doesn’t get changed by this.”

Building on these results, Theise and his colleagues later examined biopsies of people with tattooed skin. They found that some of the ink had crept from the skin into the interstitial spaces around other organs, proving that the interstitial compartments are interconnected.

Such discoveries paint the interstitium as a tidal marsh, streaming in nutrients and washing out waste. The main drift comes from high-pressure arteries, which supply much of the interstitial fluid, to low-pressure lymphatic vessels where the trash is deposited. But the motion of the fluid is also strongly affected by body movement, with every muscle in the body contributing a squeeze. Even in repose, there is flow from the peristaltic motion of the digestive tract, overlaid with the tremolo of arterial pulsing throughout the body.

This may have immediate implications for fast-moving infections like necrotising fasciitis, which destroys the tissue beneath the skin, including fascia and muscles, and cellulitis, a deep infection that leaves the skin red and swollen. “Appreciating the interstitial location of these infections may give us important information about their spread,” says Rebecca Wells, professor of gastroenterology at the University of Pennsylvania and part of the team behind the 2018 study. “On the flip side, the patterns of spread in fasciitis and cellulitis may tell us about interstitial structure and flow.”

Rewriting biology

More profoundly, a closer study of the interstitium could offer new insights into basic biological systems.

We know, for instance, that immune cells called T-cells pursue pathogens throughout the extracellular matrix. Peter Friedl, director of the Microscopic Imaging Centre at Radboud University in the Netherlands, who has studied cellular transport through the interstitium since 2007, compares them to “little monkeys” swinging through the “jungle” of collagen. Investigations into the interstitium might therefore reveal overlooked but essential elements of the immune response. 

Presiding over the interstitial tissues are multi-tentacled cells called telocytes, first named in 2010 by Laurentiu Popescu at the Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy in Romania and Maria-Simonetta Faussone-Pellegrini at the University of Florence in Italy. Using electron microscopy, they found that the arms of these cells have an impressive reach, which they use to create junctions with distant cells. The junctions are similar to neural synapses, except they connect with all types of body cells, including blood vessels, nerve fibres, muscle cells, glands, stem cells and other telocytes.

Like neurons, telocytes have electric properties that allow them to stimulate those neighbouring cells. In this way, the interstitium complements the nervous system as a body-wide sensory tissue, responding to stretching, tension, pressure, vibration and movement. The resulting input provides us with proprioception – the sense of where our body is – and much of what we feel as muscle pain and stiffness may originate in the interstitium.

Telocytes also play a crucial role in healing. Popescu and Faussone-Pellegrini observed them controlling the release of heart stem cells in the myocardial interstitium, for instance.

Stemming the spread of cancer

The interstitial fluid is also awash with extracellular vesicles, tiny packets filled with bits of RNA, proteins and lipids. These interstitial messengers bud off from sender cells and drift to a recipient. Extracellular vesicles include potent regulatory microRNAs that can make epigenetic changes to the receiving cell, altering its behaviour or even changing its identity.

This may have particularly important implications for the treatment of cancer. In 2015, David Lyden at Weill Cornell Medical College in New York and his colleagues discovered that tumour cells continuously launch extracellular vesicles into the interstitium, complete with a chemical “address” directing them to specific target tissues.

Because they are tiny, they can easily sail through the interstitium, leaving a trail of chemical breadcrumbs behind them. When they hit their target, they promote the growth of new blood vessels, preparing the ground for the metastatic cells to follow.

To make that journey, the cancer cell reaches out a sticky appendage and attaches to a fibre in the matrix of collagen. It isn’t an easy trek; it must pull its cell body along until its chunky nucleus gets jammed in the webbing. At that point, the cell releases chemicals that break down the collagen around the nucleus, freeing the cell to continue hacking its way through the interstitial undergrowth.

In this way, rogue cancer cells create tunnels throughout the interstitium, making it easier for subsequent metastatic cells to slide through.

With time, researchers may find ways to interfere with interstitial metastasis before the tumours embed. Because the tumour extracellular vesicles are addressed to specific organs, Lyden’s goal is to create personalised treatments that direct therapeutic payloads to specific tissues, avoiding damage to healthy organs.

Swartz, meanwhile, has been developing a vaccine that induces the growth of lymphatic vessels in the interstitium around melanomas. The idea is that these would attract cancer-killing T-cells. The research is still in its early stages, but her tests on mice suggest it can limit the spread of the disease.

Beyond cancer, the interstitium and its contents may shed light on endometriosis, in which tissue similar to the lining of the womb starts to grow outside the uterus, leading to pain, fatigue and fertility problems. Some experts have therefore proposed that malfunctioning telocytes may support the growth of new blood vessels that help the endometrial tissue to implant and survive.

A back door to the brain

The all-encompassing continuity of the interstitium, including organs, blood, lymph cells and nerves, is astonishing. But there is an exception: the brain, which has its own private interstitium.

This is largely to avoid friendly fire from our immune system, which could take out memories, cognitive function and motor control. The brain is therefore separated from the rest of the body by the blood-brain barrier. It keeps out most microbes most of the time, but if they do manage to sneak in, they alert the brain’s more delicate immune cells, the microglia, that must avoid too much collateral damage.

In the brain, the interstitial liquid is called cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). It provides the fuel for brain tissue and picks up the waste afterwards. The flow of CSF runs through the glymphatic system, first discovered by Maiken Nedergaard, a neuroscientist at the University of Rochester Medical Center in New York state. Arteries and veins normally run alongside lymphatic vessels, but in the brain, they run inside the glymphatic vessels. The pulsing of arteries drives the surrounding CSF into the brain interstitium, pushing its fluid towards returning veins, helping to flush out detritus.

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The decision largely piggybacks on findings from nearly a year ago by a U.S. district judge in Boston, who ruled that the Trump administration violated the Constitution when it targeted people who are not citizens for deportation solely for supporting Palestinians and criticizing Israel.

Wise wrote that the freedoms of speech and the press are “foundational to America’s enduring democracy.” The judge cited free-speech and vagueness flaws that violate the First Amendment and Fifth Amendment as she struck down portions of the provisions that the federal government follows regarding deportations.

Wise cited retaliation in March 2025 by U.S. immigration authorities against people who engaged in speech supporting the Palestinians and against Israel’s actions — which a growing number of experts, including those commissioned by a U.N. body, have said amount to genocide. The judge also cited retaliation against people who were critical of Charlie Kirk after the Turning Point USA co-founder was assassinated last September.

“Tomorrow, or perhaps even today, targets may include anyone in the United States who exercises their freedom of speech to simply express opinions the government does not like,” the judge in San Jose said.

“This downward spiral is antithetical to our Constitution that recognizes our right to speak freely,” she added. “Here you can simultaneously hate the content of a person’s speech and love the country that cherishes the freedom to allow it. Zealous protection of our Constitutional right to free speech is a provocative demonstration of our country’s powerful lack of fear.”

George Porteous, the editor-in-chief of The Stanford Daily, responded to the ruling by saying on X: “The reporters in our newsroom shouldn’t have to fear that writing a story will result in their deportation. Today’s victory means they won’t have to.”

Conor Fitzpatrick, an attorney with the Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression, which brought the lawsuit, praised the ruling.

“In America, free speech doesn’t just belong to the people who say things the government agrees with,” Fitzpatrick said in a release.

In her decision, Wise said it was clear that the government’s tactics has had an effect on college campuses.

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U.S. President Donald Trump delivers remarks during a ceremony honoring Artemis II crew members at NASA’s Johnson Space Center on August 28, 2026, in Houston, Texas. (Photo by Win McNamee/Getty Images) Win McNamee via Getty Images

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The Trump administration’s highly unusual deal to develop Venezuela’s vast oil resources would have the U.S. government collaborate with an influential and polarizing Venezuelan businessman.

Under the deal that President Trump announced late Friday, the United States would work with Alejandro Betancourt López, whose family controls Venezuela’s second largest private oil producer, North American Blue Energy Partners, according to four people familiar with the arrangement.

The federal government is expected to back the development of a significant portion of Venezuela’s proven oil reserves through the Pentagon’s Office of Strategic Capital, while Mr. Betancourt’s company would lead operations, three of the people said. The deal covers 17 oil fields spread across Venezuela.

Venezuela’s president, Delcy Rodríguez, backed the deal, saying in a statement late Friday that it would have a “significant impact on our nation’s revival,” and generate more than $200 billion in tax revenue for the government.

Mr. Trump described the deal as giving the United States “majority control” over a large portion of the country’s reserves, though many of the details of the highly unorthodox arrangement remained unclear on Saturday afternoon and were expected to change as the project gets going.

The deal represents Mr. Trump’s most direct foray into Venezuela’s oil industry since he sent U.S. Special Forces in January to seize the country’s leader, Nicolás Maduro, and began working closely with his vice president, Ms. Rodríguez, who now runs the government.

For Mr. Trump, the deal advances his quest to reshape the global energy market and enhance America’s energy security, according to a person familiar with his thinking. Mr. Trump believes, the person said, that additional oil from Venezuela would reduce the market power that Middle Eastern countries have and would help stabilize energy prices, which have risen sharply since the United States and Israel started attacking Iran in February.

Any meaningful new production from Venezuela will take years to materialize. As a result, the effort will have little immediate impact on global commodity prices, which in turn determine what U.S. consumers pay at the pump.

Chevron, the second-largest U.S. oil company, is also in advanced talks to expand its production in Venezuela, which would further expand the U.S. sphere of influence, The New York Times has reported.

Venezuela’s proven oil reserves are among the largest in the world, but its energy industry has been decimated by mismanagement, corruption and U.S. sanctions. It produces a little more than one million barrels of oil a day, or about 1 percent of global production, roughly the same share as under Mr. Maduro.

In broad terms, the United States is expected to gain preferential access to cheap Venezuelan oil, a key objective of the Trump administration as it seeks greater influence over oil production in the Americas.

North American Blue Energy Partners, or NABEP, would benefit from the direct backing of the U.S. government, which would make it easier for the company to obtain financing and supplies amid continuing U.S. sanctions against the Venezuelan economy. Working with the Trump administration should also shield the company from the volatility of Venezuelan politics.

The State Department said through a U.S. official that the deal would effectively give the United States 55 percent of the joint venture’s output. Neither the White House nor the State Department answered specific questions on Mr. Betancourt’s role, his company or the structure of the deal.

In a statement to The Times, NABEP said it looked forward to working with the U.S. government to rebuild Venezuela’s energy industry but added that “it would be premature to comment on exactly what role our company will play.” Mr. Betancourt declined to be interviewed for this article.

Under the deal, the U.S. government would have the right to acquire shares in NABEP or a related entity through a financial instrument known as a warrant, according to two people familiar with the matter. A warrant allows its owner to buy shares in a company at a predetermined price. Warrants can be traded and can rise and fall in value based on the price of the shares of the company that issued them.

NABEP, which is based in Barbados, according to its website, produces around 200,000 barrels per day. The company plans to take up to $5 billion in debt to raise output to one million barrels in the next five years, according to a person close to the company.

Mr. Betancourt, 46, rose to prominence in the 2010s, when the Venezuelan government awarded him and his partners contracts to build numerous power plants across the country even though they had no experience doing that work. The deals earned the investors the moniker “bolichicos,” meaning the “Bolivarian boys,” a reference to the new cohort of businessmen who profited from the government so-called Bolivarian Revolution.

Mr. Betancourt later bought a stake in an oil company called Petrozamora that operated mature oil fields in Lake Maracaibo in western Venezuela. Those fields became the core of NABEP, which has since acquired new fields and raised it production significantly since 2024.

Mr. Betancourt’s personal bank accounts have been under investigation for more than a decade by prosecutors in Zurich, but he has not been formally charged in Switzerland.

“Mr. Betancourt has never been charged with a crime in any jurisdiction,” Sara Chouraqui, NABEP’s general counsel, said in a statement.

Since ousting Mr. Maduro in January, the Trump administration has been relying on Mr. Betancourt to help put together commercial ventures and partnerships in Venezuela, a person familiar with the U.S. government’s efforts said.

The Trump administration began looking into Mr. Betancourt last year, as it sought out partners who would help it advance U.S. interests after the removal of Mr. Maduro. Washington officials, including Secretary of State Marco Rubio, took a positive view of Mr. Betancourt’s record of raising oil production, a rare success story amid the malaise of the industry dominated by state-run oil fields. The operational track record made the Trump administration look past the allegations of corruption that have swirled around Mr. Betancourt for years, according to a person close to the administration.

This year, State Department officials tried to pressure the Swiss government to ease up on investigations into Mr. Betancourt and asked the British government to lift travel restrictions on him, said the person familiar with the U.S. government’s efforts. The department also gave Mr. Betancourt a multiple-entry visa to the United States so he could meet with Trump administration officials.

The Washington Post reported earlier on some details of the administration’s efforts to help Mr. Betancourt.

The Pentagon did not answer specific questions about how its Office of Strategic Capital would work with Mr. Betancourt’s company. The office “conducts extensive due diligence and comprehensive legal review of potential transactions to fulfill all applicable legal and regulatory requirements,” Kingsley Wilson, the Pentagon’s press secretary, said.

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Venezuela is believed to have one of the world’s largest reserves of oil, but it produces very little oil because of mismanagement, corruption and U.S. sanctions. Credit…Adriana Loureiro Fernandez for The New York Times

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Last night’s near-total lunar eclipse did not disappoint. In the second and final lunar eclipse of the year, our natural satellite transformed into a stunning red-orange “blood moon” as almost all of it fell under Earth’s shadow.

During a lunar eclipse, Earth passes between the sun and moon, partially or totally obstructing sunlight on the latter. In this case, more than 96 percent of the moon was covered by Earth’s dark shadow, or umbra, according to NASA, making it a “deep partial eclipse.”

The reddish tone comes from the way Earth’s atmosphere filters light—reddish hues slip through to the other side, while other colors are refracted away, much like a sunset.

Last night’s eclipse began around 9:23 P.M. EDT on Thursday and lasted until about 3:02 A.M. EDT on Friday. The height of the eclipse occurred at 12:13 A.M. EDT, when the moon was 96.3 percent covered in shadow.

We collected some of the best pictures of the event from around the world.

 

Do you want to catch the next eclipse? While 2027 will see three very subtle, or penumbral, lunar eclipses, the next total lunar eclipse won’t occur until December 31, 2028. But two solar eclipses—when the moon will pass between Earth and the sun—will take place in 2027: a “ring of fire” annular eclipse on February 6 and a total solar eclipse on August 2.

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On Thursday, Miss Virginia Justus Kelley was crowned Miss USA, marking the first time in the pageant’s 75-year history that a mother — and a woman over 30 — has won.

“This opportunity means the world to me, and not only are we celebrating the 75th anniversary, but we made history tonight,” the new Miss USA said in a video posted on the organization’s Instagram page. “I’m the first married woman, first mom, and first woman in her 30s. It’s a great night.”

Kelley’s groundbreaking win comes three years after the Miss Universe and Miss USA organizations lifted the age cap on contestants and allowed mothers to participate in the pageant. Though Kelley is the first beauty queen to officially win since the rules changed, back in 1957 Mary Leona Gage was crowned Miss USA only for pageant officials to strip her of her title after they learned she was secretly married and had two children.

Kelley, 31, is an Indiana University graduate who currently works as a philanthropic adviser at St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, the Miami Herald reported. The beauty queen and her husband, Tyler Kelley, are college sweethearts who decided to foster children early in their relationship. “Thirteen years later, we have welcomed children ranging from 7 months to 10 years old into our home,” she recently told People. They are currently fostering a baby boy and his sister.

Kelley is set to compete this November in the Miss Universe competition, which will be held in San Juan, Puerto Rico. “I know what it feels like to represent moms and be above the age where you’re told you can no longer compete,” she told the Herald. “I have a sense of responsibility to show all those women they can still chase their dream and raise families, plus take care of themselves. It’s a special message, and I’m honored to share it.”

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Photo: Ivan Apfel/Getty Images

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What if there were a single metric that could capture every aspect of your health — how strong you are, how clear your vision is, how sharply you think?

That’s the goal of intrinsic capacity, a holistic measure of what someone’s body and mind are capable of.

“It’s not really a sexy term,” but it makes sense from a scientific perspective, said Dr. John Beard, a professor of productive aging at the Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health who helped to develop the concept. “‘Intrinsic’ means all those attributes that you can attribute to the individual from the skin in,” he said. “And ‘capacity’ is looking at their functioning.”

You can’t ask your doctor to test your intrinsic capacity just yet, but experts hope that physicians will eventually use it with older patients to track their health and well-being — and potentially with younger patients, too. More immediately, longevity scientists think it may be the key to demonstrating whether a medication or lifestyle change aimed at slowing aging actually works.

How does the metric work?

Intrinsic capacity was formally defined in 2015 by the World Health Organization as part of its healthy aging initiative, which in part aims to move doctors and scientists away from focusing on disease and toward maximizing and maintaining older adults’ functional abilities.

Experts derive someone’s intrinsic capacity score from their performance on five “subdomains”: cognition, locomotion (strength and mobility), sensory capacity (vision and hearing), psychological well-being and vitality (overall energy levels and resilience to physical stressors). Many of the tests that assess these subdomains are already used to evaluate older adults’ health, such as grip strength and walking speed.

Researchers have shown that intrinsic capacity correlates with older adults’ risk of disability and mortality. But experts say the real clinical value will come from following a person’s intrinsic capacity over time. That could enable doctors to identify any signs of decline early on and take steps to stop or slow the trajectory.

Even when people are “quite robust, and they don’t have any diseases, we can still detect changes in capacity,” Dr. Beard said. “And that allows you to start thinking about, well, OK, what’s making people’s capacity different, and how can we intervene much earlier to try and prevent the later life declines?”

For now, many of the tests that assess elements of intrinsic capacity, like ones to detect cognitive impairment, are useful only in older adults, since almost all younger, healthier people get a perfect or near-perfect score. But scientists are exploring whether other measures with more variability at every age could be used to assess intrinsic capacity in younger people, too.

How is the metric currently being used?

Intrinsic capacity is being studied in clinical trials, including a real-world experiment underway in France. In the study, older adults regularly fill out a questionnaire to assess their intrinsic capacity and receive personalized recommendations based on their score. If a person’s score starts to decline, they are quickly referred to their doctor or a trained geriatric nurse for follow-up testing and treatment.

The research is still preliminary, and scientists don’t yet know whether intervening early, informed by the intrinsic capacity score, will help someone to live longer. “We expect it will,” said David Furman, a professor at the Buck Institute for Research on Aging who has collaborated with the researchers leading the study, “but we don’t have the data yet.” (A similar study of intrinsic capacity, the first in the United States, just began in New Mexico.)

Intrinsic capacity is also the focus of a new research program funded by ARPA-H (the Advanced Research Projects Agency for Health), part of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The program’s ultimate goal is to pave the way for drugs that extend health span to be approved by the Food and Drug Administration.

There aren’t yet any approved longevity drugs for a couple of reasons. For one, it’s very difficult for researchers to determine whether a drug increases life span because that would require a clinical trial running for several decades, which is prohibitively expensive. Scientists have been looking for proxies of aging they can use instead, and they think intrinsic capacity might be the one.

Another hurdle is that the F.D.A. doesn’t consider aging to be a disease, so it doesn’t evaluate drugs for their ability to alter the aging process. Andrew Brack, who is leading the ARPA-H program, thinks intrinsic capacity could be a way around this. This idea isn’t unprecedented: After a long debate over whether to designate old age as a disease, in 2022 the W.H.O. instead added “aging associated decline in intrinsic capacity” to the 11th edition of the International Classification of Diseases list. (Most countries, including the United States, still use the older I.C.D.-10.)

Madison Ketcham

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Plastic bottles and agricultural waste can be converted into consumable cookies via genetically engineered yeast. The team members behind the initiative are currently awaiting institutional approval so they can taste the product.

Plastic pollution and food scarcity are two of society’s thorniest problems. Sandhya Jayasekara and her colleagues from Southern Illinois University Carbondale hope to use the former to solve the latter – potentially eliminating both in the process.

The first stage of the process is to take used plastic bottles – sourced from a supermarket – and discarded sweetcorn plant stalks and leaves, and put them through a process called oxidative hydrothermal dissolution. This uses heat to break down the materials into components that microbes can digest.

Those components are then fed to yeast that has been genetically altered using CRISPR gene-editing technology. This allows the yeast to convert the components into a variety of useful ingredients, including proteins, fats and acids, as well as vanilla flavouring and beta-carotene, which the body can convert into vitamin A.

Finally, fibre, starch and sweetener are added to the mix, and the paste is extruded through a 3D printer into any desired shape. The resulting cookies have been dubbed µBites, pronounced microbites.

The researchers, who are presenting the work at the fall meeting of the American Chemical Society (ACS) in Chicago on Friday, are eager to try µBites for themselves as soon as their university approves the experiment. But they are confident that the cookies are both safe and tasty.

“I think it has a pleasant, appealing aroma,” says Jayasekara. “And it will taste good, too. We’ve not tasted it, but it smells good – that’s for sure – like a real cookie.”

Team member Lahiru Jayakody, also at Southern Illinois University Carbondale, says it will take 20 years of additional research before plastic waste can be pulled from oceans or landfills and converted to safe and appetising food, but that he hopes the process alone can inspire others to tackle the problem of plastic waste in innovative ways, leading to “a social shift” in the way we think about the problem.

But not everyone is convinced that µBites can make a meaningful impact on plastic pollution. Jason Hallett at Imperial College London says the research is fun and interesting, but also, in all likelihood, a practical dead end.

We produce 400 million tons a year of plastic waste. You’re not going to turn it all into cookies,” says Hallet. “So it’s not a solution to the plastic-waste crisis. There’s no way you could do this commercially. We’re not gonna be eating plastic cookies.”

The concept certainly faces challenges. In a time when there is growing concern about the amount of microplastics in our environment, food and even our brains, it could be difficult to sell the idea of food that is actually made from plastic. Add the stigma of genetic engineering to the mix, and manufacturers may find a limited appetite for µBites.

Hallett says the best solution to the plastic crisis is recycling through processes we already understand, but logistical problems with gathering such widely cast waste and the low cost of virgin plastic mean it isn’t being done on a large enough scale.

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Key Takeaways

• Scientists disagree if lobsters feel pain, but many believe they do based on key criteria.
• Boiling lobsters alive is illegal in some places, like Switzerland and New Zealand, for ethical reasons.
• The most humane way to kill a lobster is using an electrocution device called the CrustaStun.

The traditional method for cooking a lobster—boiling it alive—raises the question of whether or not lobsters feel pain. This cooking technique (and others, such as storing the live lobster on ice) is used to improve humans’ dining experience. Lobsters decay very quickly after they die, and eating a dead lobster increases the risk of food-borne illness and reduces the quality of its flavor. However, if lobsters are capable of feeling pain, these cooking methods raise ethical questions for chefs and lobster eaters alike.

How Scientists Measure Pain

Until the 1980s, scientists and veterinarians were trained to ignore animal pain, based on the belief that the ability to feel pain was associated only with higher consciousness.

However, today, scientists view humans as a species of animal, and largely accept that many species (both vertebrates and invertebrate) are capable of learning and some level of self-awareness. The evolutionary advantage of feeling pain to avoid injury makes it likely that other species, even those with dissimilar physiology from humans, might have analogous systems that enable them to feel pain. 

If you slap another person in the face, you can gauge their pain level by what they do or say in response. It’s more difficult to assess pain in other species because we cannot communicate as easily. Scientists have developed the following set of criteria to establish a pain response in non-human animals: 

• Demonstrating a physiological response to a negative stimulus.
• Having a nervous system and sensory receptors.
• Having opioid receptors and showing a reduced response the stimuli when given anesthetics or analgesics.
• Demonstrating avoidance learning.
• Displaying protective behavior of injured areas.
• Electing to avoid a noxious stimulus over meeting some other need.
• Possessing self-awareness or the ability to think.

Whether Lobsters Feel Pain

Scientists disagree over whether or not lobsters feel pain. Lobsters have a peripheral system like humans, but instead of a single brain, they possess segmented ganglia (nerve cluster). Because of these differences, some researchers argue lobsters are too dissimilar to vertebrates to feel pain and that their reaction to negative stimuli is simply a reflex. 

Nonetheless, lobsters and other decapods, such as crabs and shrimp, do satisfy all of the criteria for a pain response. Lobsters guard their injuries, learn to avoid dangerous situations, possess nociceptors (receptors for chemical, thermal, and physical injury), possess opioid receptors, respond to anesthetics, and are believed to possess some level of consciousness. For these reasons, most scientists believe that injuring a lobster (e.g. storing it on ice or boiling it alive) inflicts physical pain.

Due to growing evidence that the decapods may feel pain, it is now becoming illegal to boil lobsters alive or keep them on ice. Currently, boiling lobsters alive is illegal in Switzerland, New Zealand, and the Italian city Reggio Emilia. Even in locations where boiling lobsters remains legal, many restaurants opt for more humane methods, both to appease customer consciences and because the chefs believe stress negatively affects the flavor of the meat. 

A Humane Way to Cook a Lobster

While we cannot know definitively whether or not lobsters feel pain, research indicates that it’s likely. So, if you want to enjoy a lobster dinner, how should you go about it? The least humane ways to kill a lobster include:

• Placing it in fresh water.
• Placing it in boiling water or putting it in water that is then brought to boiling.
• Microwaving it while alive.
• Cutting off its limbs or separating its thorax from abdomen (because its “brain” isn’t just in its “head”).

This rules out most of the usual butchering and cooking methods. Stabbing a lobster in the head isn’t a good option, either, as it neither kills the lobster nor renders it unconscious.

The most humane tool for cooking a lobster is the CrustaStun. This device electrocutes a lobster, rendering it unconscious in less than half a second or killing it in 5 to 10 seconds, after which it can be cut apart or boiled. (In contrast, it takes about 2 minutes for a lobster to die from immersion in boiling water.)

Unfortunately, the CrustaStun is too expensive for most restaurants and people to afford. Some restaurants place a lobster in a plastic bag and place it in the freezer for a couple of hours, during which time the crustacean loses consciousness and dies. While this solution is not ideal, it is probably the most humane option for killing a lobster (or crab or shrimp) before cooking and eating it.

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Lobsters and other decapods are different from vertebrates, but they likely feel pain. Credit: AlexRaths / Getty Images

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