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Recent breakthroughs suggest that hydrogen reservoirs are buried in countless regions of the world, including at least 30 U.S. states.

Finding such reservoirs could help accelerate a global energy transition, but until now, geologists only had a piecemeal understanding of how large hydrogen accumulations form — and where to find them.

“The game of the moment is to find where it has been released, accumulated, and preserved,” Chris Ballentine, a professor and chair of geochemistry at the University of Oxford and lead author of a new review article on hydrogen production in Earth’s crust, told Live Science in an email.

Ballentine’s new paper starts to answer those questions. According to the authors, Earth’s crust has produced enough hydrogen over the past 1 billion years to meet our current energy needs for 170,000 years. What’s still unclear is how much of that hydrogen could be accessed and profitably extracted.

In the new review, published Tuesday (May 13) in the journal Nature Reviews Earth and Environment, the researchers draw up an “ingredient” list of geological conditions that stimulate the creation and build-up of natural hydrogen gas belowground, which should make it easier to hunt for reservoirs.

“The specific conditions for hydrogen gas accumulation and production are what a number of exploration companies (e.g., Koloma, funded by a consortium led by Bill Gates’ Breakthrough Energy fund, Hy-Terra, funded by Fortescue, and Snowfox, funded by BP [British Petroleum] and RioTinto) are looking at carefully, and this will vary for different geological environments,” Ballentine said.

Natural hydrogen reservoirs require three key elements to form: a source of hydrogen, reservoir rocks, and natural seals that trap the gas underground. There are a dozen natural processes that can create hydrogen, the simplest being a chemical reaction that splits water into hydrogen and oxygen, and any type of rock that hosts at least one of these processes is a potential hydrogen source, Ballentine said.

“One place that is attracting a lot of interest is in Kansas, where a feature called the mid continental rift, formed about 1 billion years ago, created a huge accumulation of rocks (mainly basalts) that can react with water to form hydrogen,” he said. “The search is on here for geological structures that may have trapped and accumulated the hydrogen generated.”

Based on knowledge of how other gases are released from rocks underground, the review’s authors suggest that tectonic stress and high heat flow may release hydrogen deep inside Earth’s crust. “This helps to bring the hydrogen to the near surface where it might accumulate and form a commercial resource,” Ballentine said.

Within the crust, a wide range of common geological contexts could prove promising for exploration companies, the review found, ranging from ophiolite complexes to large igneous provinces and Archaean greenstone belts.

Ophiolites are chunks of Earth’s crust and upper mantle that once sat beneath the ocean, but were later thrust onto land. In 2024, researchers discovered a massive hydrogen reservoir within an ophiolite complex in Albania. Igneous rocks are those solidified from magma or lava, and Archaean greenstone belts are up to 4 billion-year-old formations that are characterized by green minerals, such as chlorite and actinolite.

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“Shame on those who voted for it: you know you did wrong,” Musk said. “You know it.” Allison Robbert / AFP via Getty Images

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The beginning of June marks the start of the Atlantic hurricane season, the six-month period when strong storms can brew in the ocean and then wreak havoc on land. Among the hazardous consequences of hurricanes are storm surges, in which water rapidly rises above the normal tide level on shore. These dangerous events can cause flooding and pick up and displace homes and other structures. “Water is very powerful,” says Heather Nepaul, a meteorologist at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s National Hurricane Center in Miami. “It can be a deadly situation.”

Surges occur when the strong winds of a hurricane interact with ocean waters, piling up water ahead of the storm. As the hurricane heads toward shore, it travels over shallower ocean, and the water it carries has nowhere to go but upward onto land.

How severe a surge will be depends on many factors, including the characteristics of the coastline and the intensity, size, and angle of approach of the storm. In general, though not always, stronger and larger storms produce higher storm surges.

As the climate warms, hurricanes are becoming more intense, and sea levels are rising. Both of these effects are likely to worsen storm surges. Coastal areas that are already vulnerable to storm surge could experience worse impacts, and places that aren’t quite vulnerable now may become increasingly at risk.

HOW IT WORKS

The bulk of a storm surge is caused by wind pushing water ashore. A small part of the effect, however, results from the low atmospheric pressure inside a storm, which decreases the amount of downward force on the ocean, triggering a rise in water level.

As the storm advances, its spiral of air pulls ocean water up into its center. When it nears land, the excess water surges over the shore above and beyond the normal tide level.

VARIABLES THAT AFFECT STORM SURGE HEIGHT

The severity of storm surges is hard to predict because it depends on so many variables: the speed and radius of the wind associated with the storm, the hurricane’s size, the speed and angle at which the storm approaches land, and the specific shape of the shoreline where it hits.

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Jen Christiansen

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[Source Photo: Thirdman/Pexels]

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