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When survivors of trauma recount their experiences, they are often questioned because of how they relay their stories. They may have problems remembering what happened, or their memories may be jumbled or even contradictory. People hearing those stories—attorneys, reporters, healthcare workers, or friends—may expect a clearer, linear narrative.

Those unaffected by trauma may also be surprised to hear how the person acted in the moment. It’s easy to assume that someone experiencing a traumatic event would have a “fight or flight” response, instinctively fighting off a perpetrator or fleeing the scene—but that might not be the case.

Understanding the science of how trauma affects memory and behavior reveals why these responses can actually be expected and are not contradictory.

In both my academic and clinical work as a psychologist, I have witnessed the impact trauma has on people’s memories and behaviors, especially when an event in their present life triggers something from their past.

Research shows that taking a trauma-informed approach, which prioritizes understanding and curiosity about someone’s experience as opposed to judgment or critical evaluation, increases empathy for survivors’ thoughts, feelings and behaviors.

How trauma affects the brain

According to the World Health Organization, approximately 70 percent of people worldwide report experiencing a traumatic event in their lifetime. The majority of these people do not develop PTSD, a clinical diagnosis of symptoms, such as having nightmares and flashbacks about the event, avoiding places that are reminders of it, and increased arousal that can make concentration and sleep difficult. Many survivors don’t meet criteria for PTSD but struggle with feeling distressed, depressed or anxious.

In traumatic situations, people often respond in unexpected ways, and they may second-guess themselves. This may happen particularly when someone experiences a repeated trauma, which is more likely than not due to how many people experience traumatic events.

Trauma also distorts how memories are stored and retrieved.

Research indicates that people experience traumatic memories differently than memories of other significant events, such as sad or positive experiences. Two of the main brain structures scientists believe are involved in storing traumatic memories are the hippocampus—responsible for memory storage—and the amygdala, which is responsible for processing emotions.

During trauma, the amygdala becomes highly active, processing emotions such as fear, and the hippocampus becomes overwhelmed by stress, leading to problems with memory storage.

Traumatic memories do not follow a neat, linear story. Instead, people may experience the memory as disconnected fragments of sensations, emotions, smells, or images. Such memories cause the body to reexperience the past threat as if it is happening in the moment. This may cause a person to feel like running away or fighting back—flight or fight. Or they may freeze.

In other words, people don’t have the distant perspective they often feel with other memories from the past. Rather, they may feel they are reliving the original experience.

Misinterpreting victims’ behaviors

With this understanding, consider someone who experiences a trauma at the hands of a professional during an appointment. They may appear outwardly calm while it happens and then leave the session as they typically would—checking out, providing payment, and possibly even scheduling the next appointment. While their response to act normally may seem odd, such behavior makes sense for someone trying to escape a threat.

Fight, flight or freeze responses have become widely known in popular culture. In a freeze response, a person’s mind goes blank and they may be unable to speak, leading to a “deer in the headlights” behavior.

On the other hand, a person may act paradoxically—perhaps by going on about their day as if nothing happened. They may not report the event or may question whether the incident even occurred. This represents another survival response—the lesser-known fawn response. This way of handling stress occurs when someone acts calm, appeases the threatening person, and retreats to de-escalate the situation. Instead of literally backing away, in this example, the person metaphorically backs away by completing the session and exiting as expected without further conflict.

Outsiders may misconstrue these behaviors as evidence that a trauma did not actually happen or that a survivor lacks credibility. But that logic reflects common misconceptions about how people “should” remember or respond to trauma.

If this was the person’s first experience with a traumatic situation, afterward they are likely to feel afraid, disoriented or hyperalert. However, if they had previous similar experiences, this scenario may trigger past memories in the moment. This can muddy the experience even further, making it difficult to recall the incident later, especially under stressful circumstances.

When a survivor reports an incident and ultimately testifies against someone who harmed them, memory recall might be uniquely affected. Most people in this situation would be highly stressed, especially if the perpetrator were in the room.

To make matters worse, the feeling that the recalled memory is actually happening in the moment and not in the past may cause a survivor to convey a more fragmented story. They may also have either a more intense or detached emotional experience, depending on their own trauma responses.

Legal and other professionals unaware of the range of natural responses to trauma can easily misinterpret these behaviors as signs of lying or malingering.

In reality, the percentage of people who falsely report sexual assault, for example, is low—between 2 percent and 10 percent.

Providing better support

Research shows that people who better understand nuances of trauma and mental health in turn are more empathetic toward survivors. Some healthcare settings have adopted a trauma-informed approach to prevent retraumatization and build safety. Studies show that even being attentive to word choice can help ensure effective care for patients that avoids victim blaming.

A trauma-informed approach can also improve legal and justice systems so victims are better supported. This includes understanding why accounts aren’t linear and not equating memory inconsistencies with lying.

Research also shows that trauma-informed responses are equally important in everyday relationships. In friendships and close relationships, or in the workplace, patience and empathy convey a sense of respect, safety and trustworthiness. These offer a strong foundation for positive social and working relationships, which can lower a survivor’s distress and support their healing.

When people have a greater understanding of how trauma affects the brain, they gain insight into how survivors think, act and process their memories. What initially looks confusing or inconsistent is actually behavior that flows logically from a traumatized brain.

Having a trauma-informed perspective helps people to be better friends, co-workers, and professionals. By extension, responding from this awareness may even help survivors understand their own reactions and experiences, which may ultimately aid their healing and ability to lead fulfilling lives.

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“By the grace of God, I’m still here,” Glasgow said. But Kenya and Kennedi could not be saved.

Margate Police said in a press release that first responders immediately performed CPR on Kenya and Kennedi when they arrived at the home and sent them to the hospital. But the two died shortly after they arrived.

“Worst feeling in the world, and to turn around and see your wife and your daughter there lifeless is even worse,” Glasgow recalled of the moments after the lightning strike.

While roughly 37 million lightning strikes hit the ground in the U.S. each year, the odds of being struck are less than one in a million, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. It’s even rarer to die from a lightning strike, as nearly 90 percent of victims survive.

“The biggest heart in the world, puts everybody before herself, everybody. My daughter, my wife, amazing, amazing people,” he said. The father also gushed about Kennedi’s love of musician Benson Boone and how she could sing his songs word for word. Glasgow is now left to pick up the pieces of his life and stay strong for his surviving two-year-old daughter, Kensli.

“I just lost my best friend. My daughter just lost her best friend,” Glasgow wrote in a Facebook post Monday. “After I lost my father a few years ago I learned a very valuable lesson and that’s to never question God.”

Addressing Kenya and Kennedi, Glasgow said, “We will make you both our story and take it one day at time because I know you both are guiding us.”

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Florida father Kameron Glasgow has been left heartbroken after his wife, Kenya, and two-year-old daughter, Kennedi, were killed in a lightning strike over the weekend (Kameron Glasgow via Facebook)

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A divided Supreme Court on Monday allowed the Trump administration to move forward with plans to restrict mail-in voting before the midterm elections.

In an emergency order, the justices said President Trump could proceed with implementing an executive order he had signed, which directed the U.S. Postal Service to help decide which voters should receive mail-in ballots. Under the executive order, the Department of Homeland Security will also create lists of U.S. citizens that the administration believes could be used to monitor voter rolls for noncitizens.

The decision means the administration can move ahead with planning for restricting the use of mail ballots even as a lower court continues to weigh the legality of Mr. Trump’s executive order. But with little more than two months until Election Day — and considerably less before early voting begins in many states — it remains unclear whether the White House’s rules will be in effect for a midterm election in which control of both chambers is at stake.

The order by the court was unsigned, as is typical in such emergency rulings. The majority wrote that it agreed with the government’s argument that it should be able to move forward with its plans, finding that the Trump administration was “likely to suffer irreparable harm” unless the justices lifted a freeze that had been imposed by lower courts.

The three liberal justices dissented, with Justice Ketanji Brown Jackson warning that the majority “needlessly injects chaos and uncertainty into the upcoming midterm elections.”

The majority said the states that challenged the president’s order could not demonstrate that they were sufficiently harmed by voting rules that had not yet taken effect. The justices cautioned that their order was preliminary and not a final decision about whether the administration’s order “will necessarily be lawful” once the plans are complete. “On that score, time will tell,” the majority said in the 10-page, unsigned order.

That could mean the legal battle will return to the justices, perhaps quickly, as the administration moves to implement the president’s order before the midterms.

Mr. Trump signed the executive order in March as part of his broader attempts to curtail voting by mail. It directed federal agencies to create “state citizenship lists” of people who will be 18 or older as of Election Day. Federal officials were then directed to send those names to state election officials, who administer the vote, purportedly so they could use them to purge voter registration lists of anyone who is not a citizen. The order also instructed the Postal Service not to mail ballots on behalf of anyone whose name was not on the approved list.

Several court challenges immediately followed, including a lawsuit in federal court in Massachusetts brought by Democratic state attorneys general. The challengers argued that the president exceeded his authority because the Constitution gives Congress and the states power over elections, not the executive.

In late June, Judge Indira Talwani, a Federal District Court judge in Massachusetts, temporarily blocked the president’s order, finding that it violated the Constitution’s separation of powers. She also determined that Congress had not delegated authority to the Postal Service to determine which voters should receive mail ballots, and that the executive order did not allow enough time before November for the Postal Service to follow the legally required process for agencies when they adopt new rules.

Judge Talwani issued a separate broader ruling in a related case this month, blocking any enforcement of the executive order for the 2026 midterms. She again emphasized that the Constitution does not grant authority over elections to the executive branch. She also noted that, contrary to Mr. Trump’s claims of widespread voter fraud, the government had not provided “evidentiary support of illegal or fraudulent absentee voting.”

A federal appeals court earlier upheld Judge Talwani’s temporary block. At that point, Trump administration lawyers filed an emergency application asking the justices to step in. Several Republican state attorneys general filed a separate, parallel request.

In a brief to the court, the Democratic state attorneys general wrote that the executive order “would allow the federal government to rush out an unprecedented, legally indefensible voter-verification and ballot-interception program that would, among other things, give the U.S. Postal Service far-reaching new powers and responsibilities.”

They also argued that allowing the order to be implemented would mean a chaotic rollout not long before states begin to send out absentee ballots.

And they wrote that voters could be confused and disenfranchised, given that the federal government was likely to make errors in compiling citizen lists and that valid voters would have little time to challenge the government’s determinations.

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Volunteers processing mail-in ballots on Nov. 5, 2024, in Dearborn, Mich. Credit…Nick Hagen for The New York Times

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The melting of the Greenland ice sheet is causing more extreme heat in Europe, contributing to the major heatwaves experienced there so far this year.

The surge of cold meltwater into the North Atlantic is altering ocean temperatures and shifting the jet stream to favour heatwaves in western Europe and the Mediterranean, a study undergoing peer review has found. As Greenland ice loss accelerates, Europe may suffer more frequent and intense heatwaves than climate models currently predict.

This newly discovered “atmospheric bridge” played a major role in the unprecedented heatwaves this summer, according to Marilena Oltmanns at the UK’s National Oceanography Centre, who is one of the study’s authors.

“Europe heats up faster. This is because of the jet stream shift,” she says. “In future years… it will be even more extreme. In the future we will think this [year’s heatwave] was not a heatwave; this was nice.”

The steady rise in global temperature has increased heatwaves. But it’s still debated whether changes in prevailing weather patterns are also contributing.

In the past 30 years, high-pressure ridges – large areas of elevated air pressure that look like a ridge or upside-down U on weather maps – have been forming more frequently over Europe, the study finds, leading to sunny skies and extreme heat. These ridges are caused by waviness in the jet stream, the band of strong winds that circles the northern hemisphere. When the more or less straight-flowing jet stream meanders northward around western Europe, it allows warm air from the central Atlantic and Sahara desert to pour into the ridge that’s been created.

Years with extensive high-pressure ridges over Europe have resulted in heatwaves like the one that killed 70,000 people in 2003.

The researchers say the formation of the ridges can be traced back to Greenland through a cascade of climate events. In the summer before years of extensive ridging, an average of 81 billion tonnes more meltwater rushes off the ice sheet, they found. The cold meltwater lowers sea surface temperatures as it spreads through the North Atlantic in the autumn and winter. Its freshness inhibits mixing with saltier, warmer deep layers, further cooling the surface.

These pulses of meltwater cooling come on top of the “cold blob,” a long-term decline in ocean temperatures in the North Atlantic that some scientists blame on the weakening of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) system of currents. Together, they create a sharp temperature front between the cold waters and the warmer surface waters further south in the Atlantic.

As warm air masses rise to the south of the front and cold masses descend to the north of it, they begin to swirl and generate cyclones. This makes the jet stream wavier. It tends to meander southward of these cyclones, then back northward over western Europe, creating the persistent, high-pressure ridges and heatwaves there.

Most worryingly, climate models don’t fully capture this process, according to Oltmanns.

“This is a big problem,” she says. “It’s going to be even more intense in terms of heatwaves and droughts, in particular in the Mediterranean region, so the weather extremes are likely underestimated.”

A study in July found that the jet stream has shifted southward in the Atlantic in recent decades, similar to the pattern shown in the study. But it concluded that this was due to natural fluctuations in the climate and would eventually reverse.

Meltwater from Greenland could be forcing the jet stream to meander, according to John Methven at the University of Reading, UK, who was one of the authors of the July study. But the weakening of the AMOC or changes in atmospheric circulation over the North Atlantic could also be causing this shift.

“That’s the weak link as far as I’m concerned; the link between the cold blob and whatever’s melting in Greenland is not established, and there might be other things going on,” he says.

If North Atlantic cooling continues to affect the jet stream, it could cause not just heatwaves but also other extreme weather, according to Oltmanns. The research linked it to an unprecedented derecho, a stream of thunderstorms and strong winds, in the Mediterranean in 2022. Winds reached more than 60 metres per second, and fist-sized hail killed 12 people.

“We [will] have more droughts at some locations, flooding events at others, and the variability on top of this increases,” she says.

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The diplomats’ letter states: ‘Nothing justifies Israel’s systematic policy of destruction of Gaza and its population.’ Photograph: Mahmoud Issa/Reuters

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