James' World 2

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We long ago blew past any meaningful controls on political giving in American elections. Now we should focus on the rules governing political spending, which are in equally terrible shape. For that we can blame the Trump campaign and the federal government’s feeble enforcement efforts.

Anyone who has spent time reviewing Donald Trump’s campaign spending reports would quickly conclude they’re a governance nightmare. There is so little disclosure about what happened to the billions raised in 2020 and 2024 that donors (and maybe even the former president himself) can’t possibly know how it was spent.

Federal Election Commission campaign disclosure reports from 2020 show that much of the money donated to the Trump campaign went into a legal and financial black hole reportedly controlled by Trump family members and close associates. This year’s campaign disclosures are shaping up to be the same. Donors big and small give their hard-earned dollars to candidates with the expectation they will be spent on direct efforts to win votes. They deserve better.

During the 2020 election, almost $516 million of the over $780 million spent by the Trump campaign was directed to American Made Media Consultants, a Delaware-based private company created in 2018 that masked the identities of who ultimately received donor dollars, according to a complaint filed with the F.E.C. by the nonpartisan Campaign Legal Center. How A.M.M.C. spent the money was a mystery even to Mr. Trump’s campaign team, according to news reports shortly after the election.

All but 18 of the 150 largest expenditures on a Trump campaign’s 2020 F.E.C. report went to A.M.M.C. None of the expenses were itemized or otherwise explained aside from anodyne descriptions including “placed media,” “SMS advertising” and “online advertising.” F.E.C. rules require candidates to fully and accurately disclose the final recipients of their campaign disbursements, which is usually understood to include when payments are made through a vendor such as A.M.M.C. This disclosure is intended to assure donors their contributions are used for campaign expenses. Currently, neither voters nor law enforcement can know whether any laws were broken.

A.M.M.C.’s first president was reported to be Lara Trump, the wife of Mr. Trump’s son Eric. The New York Times reported that A.M.M.C. had a treasurer who was also the chief financial officer of Mr. Trump’s 2020 presidential campaign. Mr. Trump’s son-in-law Jared Kushner signed off on the plan to set up A.M.M.C., and one of Eric Trump’s deputies from the Trump Organization was involved in running it.

Ms. Trump is now a co-chair of the Republican National Committee, which, soon after her arrival, announced it would link up with the Trump campaign for joint fund-raising. The joint entity prioritizes a PAC that pays Mr. Trump’s legal fees over the R.N.C., The Associated Press has reported, making assurances from Mr. Trump’s campaign co-manager that R.N.C. funds wouldn’t be used to pay Mr. Trump’s legal bills seem more hollow.

This election, the Trump campaign and four of its PACs have paid Red Curve Solutions, another private company, at least $18 million. The Campaign Legal Center says Red Curve appears to pay Mr. Trump’s legal bills and then gets reimbursed by the PACs. (The law is murky on what types of legal bills can be paid by campaigns, but some are allowed.) The head of Red Curve also serves as the treasurer for the Trump campaign as well as the affiliated PACs.

What percentage of donor contributions go to lawyers defending Mr. Trump? It’s impossible to know.

In June, NBC revealed the existence of a new mystery company, called Launchpad Strategies. Launchpad took in almost $15 million in Trump political cash via the Trump Save America Joint Fundraising Committee and the Trump National Committee. Little is known about this new group. It was created in 2023 and the Trump campaign says it is related to fund-raising. We don’t know who owns it, who runs it, or where the $15 million went.

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Baptiste Virot

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Alone, Tyrannosaurus rex sniffs the humid Cretaceous air, scenting a herd of Triceratops grazing beyond the tree line. As the predator scans the floodplain, its vision suddenly snaps into focus. A single Triceratops has broken off from the herd and wandered within striking distance. Standing motionless, the T. rex formulates a plan of attack, anticipating the precise angle at which it must intersect its target before the Triceratops can regain the safety of the herd. The afternoon silence is shattered as the predator crashes though the low branches at the edge of the forest in hot pursuit.

T. rex has hunted Triceratops in so many books, games, and movies that the encounter has become a cliché. But did a scene like this one ever unfold in real life? Would T. rex identify its prey by vision or by smell? Would the Triceratops be warned by a loudly cracking branch, or remain oblivious because it was unable to locate the source of the sound? Could T. rex plan its attack like a cat, or would it lash out indiscriminately like a shark?

Ever since dinosaurs were first described in the early 1800s, paleontologists have debated their intelligence, sensory capabilities, and behavioral complexity. Early investigations relied on natural endocasts, which are casts formed when sediment fills the empty space in a skull. These casts replicate the shape of the braincase’s contents in life. The conventional wisdom long held that all dinosaurs had tiny brains and therefore unsophisticated behaviors. Perhaps the most amusing example of this view of dinosaur intelligence came from 19th-century paleontologist Othniel Charles Marsh, who hypothesized that the armored dinosaur Stegosaurus had a second brain near its rump to supplement the walnut-size brain in its skull. This idea was based on a vaguely braincase-shaped expansion of the spinal canal near the dinosaur’s pelvis. The mysterious expansion is now thought to represent a glycogen body—a structure that stores energy-rich glucose and occurs in a similar position in some modern birds.

Present-day paleontologists remain unconvinced that Stegosaurus was capable of much higher reasoning. But in recent years, scientists’ appraisal of the cognitive capacity of some other dinosaurs has improved, particularly that of members of the theropod lineage that gave rise to birds. With the advent of new technologies, such as micro computed tomography (CT) scanning, we can now reconstruct the volume and surface topography of brains without having to depend entirely on rare natural endocasts, greatly expanding the number of species available to study. Advanced imaging is also teaching us how dinosaurs might have used their brains. We now have the tools needed to answer the question of how long-­vanished animals perceived the world around them and what really happened when predator met prey in the age of dinosaurs.

Where did T. rex fall on the intelligence spectrum between dim-witted Stegosaurus and tool-using ravens? In a high-profile paper published last fall, neuroscientist Suzana Herculano-Houzel of Vanderbilt University suggested that a T. rex was about as smart as a baboon—a startling conclusion because primates, with their large brains, are some of the cleverest animals around. Having spent long hours pondering the way brain volume scales with body size and what this relation means for brain function in extinct dinosaurs and birds, we were intrigued to see the headlines about this study. Superficially, the brain of the tyrant lizard king looks fairly puny compared with its body size. Weighing in at less than a pound, the brain of this six-ton dinosaur is diminutive next to the 11-pound brain of the African elephant, which, despite being the largest living terrestrial mammal has a smaller body than T. rex.

Herculano-Houzel argued that the relation be­­tween brain size and body size is unimportant when it comes to intelligence. What matters, she said, is the raw number of neurons in the telencephalon, a region in the front of the brain that includes not only the olfactory bulbs that process smell but also the cerebrum, where higher cognitive functions such as decision-making occur. Scientists previously had only an imprecise understanding of how many neurons were present in vertebrate brains because in different species they can be more or less densely packed in different parts of the brain.

A T. rex with the intelligence of a primate would be terrifying. We think some caveats are in order, however.

Herculano-Houzel and Roberto Lent of Federal University of Rio de Janeiro invented a technique for counting neurons called the isotropic fractionator method. It uses special chemicals to dissolve a brain, essentially making brain soup. A fluorescent dye stains the nuclei of neurons so that they glow and are easily visible. Researchers can precisely count the glowing nuclei in a small, homogeneous sample of the soup and then extrapolate the total number of neurons in the living brain. Using this method, Herculano-­Houzel and her colleagues calculated that human brains have approximately 100 billion neurons, confirming earlier estimates.

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Beth Zaiken

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About one-third of the global population, around 3 billion people, don’t have access to the Internet or have poor connections because of infrastructure limitations, economic disparities, and geographic isolation.

Today’s satellites and ground-based networks leave communications gaps where, because of geography, setting up traditional ground-based communications equipment would be too expensive.

High-altitude platform stations – telecommunications equipment positioned high in the air, on uncrewed balloons, airships, gliders, and airplanes – could increase social and economic equality by filling internet connectivity gaps in ground and satellite coverage. This could allow more people to participate fully in the digital age.

One of us, Mohamed-Slim Alouini, is an electrical engineer who contributed to an experiment that showed it is possible to provide high data rates and ubiquitous 5G coverage from the stratosphere. The stratosphere is the second lowest layer of the atmosphere, ranging from 4 to 30 miles above the Earth. Commercial planes usually fly in the lower part of the stratosphere. The experiment measured signals between platform stations and users on the ground in three scenarios: a person staying in one place, a person driving a car, and a person operating a boat.

My colleagues measured how strong the signal was in relation to interference and background noise levels. This is one of the measures of network reliability. The results showed that the platform stations can support high-data-rate applications such as streaming 4K resolution videos and can cover 15 to 20 times the area of standard terrestrial towers.

Early attempts by Facebook and Google to commercially deploy platform stations were unsuccessful. But recent investments, technological improvements, and interest from traditional aviation companies and specialized aerospace startups may change the equation.

The goal is global connectivity, a cause that brought the platform stations idea recognition in the World Economic Forum’s 2024 Top 10 Emerging Technologies report. The international industry initiative HAPS Alliance, which includes academic partners, is also pushing toward that goal.

Fast, Cost-Effective, Flexible

Platform stations would be faster, more cost-effective, and more flexible than satellite-based systems.

Because they keep communications equipment closer to Earth than satellites, the stations could offer stronger, higher-capacity signals. This would enable real-time communications speedy enough to communicate with standard smartphones, high-resolution capabilities for imaging tasks, and greater sensitivity for sensing applications. They transmit data via free-space optics, or light beams, and large-scale antenna array systems, which can send large amounts of data quickly.

Satellites can be vulnerable to eavesdropping or jamming when their orbits bring them over adversarial countries. However, platform stations remain within the airspace of a single country, which reduces that risk.

High-altitude platform stations are also easier to put in place than satellites, which have high launch and maintenance costs. The regulatory requirements and compliance procedures required to secure spots in the stratosphere are likely to be simpler than the complex international laws governing satellite orbits. Platform stations are also easier to upgrade, so improvements could be deployed more quickly.

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(Credit: Thales Alenia Space via Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA)

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Doris Tsao is the 2024 recipient of The Kavli Prize in Neuroscience for her research on facial recognition. Her work has provided insights into the complex workings of the brain and has the potential to advance our understanding of perception and cognition.

Megan Hall: When we see a friend’s face, how do we instantly know who they are? Doris Tsao looks closely at the brain patterns of monkeys to help unravel this mystery. This year, she received The Kavli Prize in Neuroscience with Nancy Kanwisher and Winrich Freiwald, for identifying a specialized region of the brain where facial recognition happens.

Scientific American Custom Media, in partnership with The Kavli Prize, spoke with Doris to learn more about her discoveries and how she’s using them to unlock a bigger question – how do our brains represent the world?

As a kid, Doris Tsao was surrounded by science. Her mother was a computer programmer and her father is a mathematician.

Doris Tsao: I always had grew up with the sense that being a scientist was the most noble life calling. That really came from my parents talking to them. It was part of our family.

Megan Hall: But Doris didn’t think she’d be a scientist.

Doris Tsao: I didn’t think of myself as particularly interested in science. I like math. My parents gave me geometry problems, and I loved that. I certainly didn’t think about the brain when I was a kid. I liked to play. I played with Barbie dolls. I loved to read biographies.

Megan Hall: That all changed when she was in sixth grade.

Doris Tsao: I remember just waking up one morning and, suddenly, for no real reason, wondering if space is infinite or not. Because it seemed like if space is infinite, that seems incredible. I’d never thought about infinity before. And if it wasn’t, how could that be? Right? So, I just kept going in these loops, and I remember obsessing about this for days.

Megan Hall: She revisited this question in high school as she started reading about artificial intelligence and neuroscience. Books by philosophers like Immanuel Kant made her think about how our minds perceive space. Why do you think that question gripped you so much?

Doris Tsao: It’s kind of funny, I always thought I was special, but my kids, they’re like six years old and they ask me that nowadays. So, I think it’s such a natural question. Maybe every kid wonders about this at some point.

Megan Hall: But Doris kept wondering about it. Still, she couldn’t pinpoint exactly what she was looking for. She says she went to the California Institute of Technology for college because she liked the idea of being a scientist.

Doris Tsao: And I had read all these books about the brain, and so on. So, I had romantic notions about that, but it was like sort of a fantasy about what my life could be like rather than motivated in a question about the world.

Megan Hall: Then something pretty common happened. She was on a camping trip with her dad and he asked her to proofread one of his academic papers. His first language is Chinese, so…

Doris Tsao: He would give me his papers to correct English mistakes. And I did this starting in middle school, high school, and I had no idea what his papers were – they were like gobbledygook – but I could figure out that the verb was not agreeing with the subject.

Megan Hall: But this time was different. With her training from Caltech, Doris actually understood what he was writing about.

Doris Tsao: It was kind of astonishing to me, like, the idea.

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As I sink into the plush, cream-coloured leather recliner, a glass of Champagne in hand and hiking boots raised, I’m ready for a three-hour spectacle where nature takes center stage. But the stage isn’t just in front of me – it’s all around.

I’m not in a theater; I’m in Switzerland aboard the GoldenPass Express: a state-of-the-art panoramic train where floor-to-ceiling windows reveal stunning views of the Swiss countryside – from turquoise lakes that mirror towering mountain peaks to rolling meadows dotted with storybook chalets – that rival the grandest cinematic experiences. Sitting in the nine-seat Prestige Class carriage in a specially designed heated, swiveling chair feels both private and personal – as if I’ve got the snowcapped Alps, wildflower-laced pastures, and bell-adorned cows to myself.

Opened in December 2022 and fully relaunched in June 2023 after addressing problems with track wear, The GoldenPass Express (GPX) is one of Europe’s newest (and most luxurious) high-tech trains. Its 115km journey follows a medieval trade route connecting Interlaken’s glaciers to Montreux’s terraced vineyards, and thanks to a technological innovation, the GPX allows travelers to take one of the world’s most scenic train routes without transferring, as passengers did previously. The GPX is one of five premium panoramic trains within the Swiss Travel System. Individual tickets range from 56-145 Swiss francs (roughly £50-130). It’s also included in the Swiss Travel Pass (starting from 244 Swiss francs – roughly £219 – and children under 16 ride free of charge) which offers unlimited access to all public transportation (trains, trams, buses and passenger ferries), 50% off mountain railways and gondolas, and free admission to more than 500 museums.

The train’s midnight-blue exterior and classic design evoke the bygone era of the original Orient Express that still connects Paris to Istanbul. Inside, the interior is crisp and cutting-edge, the Prestige Class specially designed chairs are by Ferrari-designer firm Pininfarina and are the only such rail seats in Europe. Need lower back support? There’s a button for that. Tired feet? Elevate your legs. Feeling chilly? Just press the seat warmer. Want a different view? Simply pivot your seat to face the direction of your choice. Just don’t fall asleep!

But what truly sets the GPX apart from other luxury trains is something you can’t see: it can seamlessly jump between tracks of different gauges and voltages.

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(Credit: MOB)

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