James' World 2

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We share the planet with some 7.7 million species of animals. And every day, they confound us. Take the orcas (i.e., killer whales), for example, that have taken to ramming human vessels. Despite the tens of thousands of academic papers that have been written about them, the best any researcher can do to explain why they have been bludgeoning ships is shrug, and make some guesses.

Animals tease us by sharing the world with us, but by also withholding many of their secrets. “We don’t know what it’s like to conceive of the world as a killer whale or as a cat, or a nonhuman primate, or any individual that doesn’t have language really,” Jennifer Vonk, a cognitive scientist who studies animals at Oakland University, tells Vox’s, Byrd Pinkerton.

On Unexplainable — Vox’s podcast that explores scientific mysteries, unanswered questions, and all the things we learn by diving into the unknown — we routinely return to stories about animals. The people who study them have enviable jobs: involving playing with puppies, or diving deep into the dark parts of the sea, or thinking through what the roar of a long-dead dinosaur might have sounded like.

And their works in turn provoke deep, fascinating questions. Questions about the interior lives of animals, but also about how humans are changing the world, about how wildlife is responding to those changes, and about how many forms of life depend on one another.

We might not be able to understand why animals do what they do. But we can at least understand how important these creatures are.

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Shortly after his sixty-seventh birthday, Ernesto Chavez retired from his job at a Los Angeles food warehouse. Sara, his wife of forty-five years, told me that he meticulously took his medications for high blood pressure and cholesterol, hoping to enjoy his time with his grandchildren. But one morning in January 2021, Ernesto burned with fever, his chest heaving as though he were once again lifting heavy boxes. At the hospital, he tested positive for COVID-19. His oxygen levels plummeted, and he was quickly intubated. Ten days later, his lungs were failing, his face was bloated from liters of intravenous fluid, and his hands and feet had begun to cool. As his chances of survival waned, I arranged to speak with his family about a subject inseparable from death itself: cardiopulmonary resuscitation, or CPR.

For decades, physicians have debated whether CPR should be offered to people who suffer from the final blows of incurable illness, be it heart failure, advanced cancer, or dementia. Although CPR has become synonymous with medical heroism, nearly eighty-five percent of those who receive it in a hospital die, their last moments marked by pain and chaos. The pandemic only deepened the risks: every chest compression spewed contagious particles into the air, and intubation, which often follows compressions, exposed doctors to virus-laden saliva. Hospitals in Michigan and Georgia reported that no COVID patient survived the procedure. An old question acquired new urgency: Why was CPR a default treatment, even for people as sick as Ernesto?

As a palliative-care physician, I help people with serious, often terminal, illness consider a path forward. During the pandemic, this involved weekly Zoom meetings with each family whose loved one was in the I.C.U. with COVID. We discussed how the virus could damage the lungs irreversibly, how we gauged a patient’s condition, and what we would do if, despite being on life support, that patient died.

On a gray afternoon, I logged on to Zoom to speak with Ernesto’s family. I would be joined by Sara, her daughter Nancy, and Neal, an internal-medicine resident covering the I.C.U. Before the meeting, I asked Neal whether he’d been taught how to have these conversations. “Nope,” he said. I asked him what he might say to Ernesto’s family. “Unfortunately, he still needs the ventilator for his lungs, and he’s not showing signs of improvement. We want you to know that he is very sick,” he said, his expression solemn. “Because he is so sick, his heart could stop. If that happened, would you want us to do CPR to revive him?” He used his hands to simulate chest compressions on a phantom body.

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Photograph by Ashlee Rezin Garcia / Chicago Sun-Times / AP

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If you were told to do more exercise to lower your blood pressure, you might think you’d need break out you running gear or hit the weights. But one of us (Jamie) recently published research that found exercises that you hold in a static position, such as planks and wall sits, are actually the best way to reduce blood pressure.

This kind of “isometric” exercise involves contracting a specific muscle or muscle group and holding it, so the length of the muscle doesn’t change throughout the exercise.

But lower blood pressure is only one of the benefits of doing this type of exercise.

1. They improve heart health

Jamie’s recent work looked at 270 randomized controlled trials involving a total of over 15,000 participants. It found that the best way to lower blood pressure was to perform an average of three isometric sessions per week.

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He was mentioned in an episode of Mash!

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Charles Richard Drew (June 3, 1904 – April 1, 1950) was an American surgeon and medical researcher. He researched in the field of blood transfusions, developing improved techniques for blood storage, and applied his expert knowledge to developing large-scale blood banks early in World War II. This allowed medics to save thousands of Allied forces’ lives during the war. As the most prominent African American in the field, Drew protested against the practice of racial segregation in the donation of blood, as it lacked scientific foundation, and resigned his position with the American Red Cross, which maintained the policy until 1950.

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Charles Richard Drew, Born June 3, 1904, in Washington, D.C., U.S.

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Movement can change lives. I see it every day.

When I was young, I didn’t understand pain. Each morning, I hit the ground running, moving easily through life. But at age 25, I injured my spine while dancing. My perspective on my body and my relationship with it changed overnight.

I learned to adapt and apply my fitness knowledge to my daily life and, later, to the lives of my clients; as a Pilates instructor for decades, I understand when clients ask, “What can I do to lessen my pain? How can I feel better?”Pain robs us of the joy in life—but stretching gives us a return to life, freedom, and joyful experiences. It can help ease aches and prevent new pains. Daily stretching increases blood flow, which delivers more oxygen and nutrients to joints and muscles, and this helps improve flexibility, range of motion, and strength—all things that add up to less stiffness and pain. In short, stretching helps your body function at its best.

I don’t break down stretches into individual body parts, but rather into broader movements. The body is a network: Our muscles, bones, tendons, and fascia are all connected. Pain in one area can affect another body part, but this also means you get more bang for your buck when you stretch mindfully.

I also think it’s crucial to connect stretching with functional activities—how to properly reach for an item on a high shelf, for example. If a stretch doesn’t help you move with less pain in the real world, what good is it?

I don’t break down stretches into individual body parts, but rather into broader movements. The body is a network: Our muscles, bones, tendons, and fascia are all connected. Pain in one area can affect another body part, but this also means you get more bang for your buck when you stretch mindfully.

I also think it’s crucial to connect stretching with functional activities—how to properly reach for an item on a high shelf, for example. If a stretch doesn’t help you move with less pain in the real world, what good is it?

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Philip Friedman

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New research sheds light on a tricky idea of consciousness: There’s a difference between what the brain takes in and what we’re consciously aware of taking in.

Scientists now think they’ve pinpointed the brain region where that conscious awareness is managed.

The team, from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in Israel and the University of California, Berkeley (UC Berkeley), in the US, found sustained brain activity in the occipitotemporal area of the visual cortex in the back of the brain.

While this activity dropped to around 10–20 percent of its level about 300 milliseconds after an original visual stimulus, the pattern of activity remained while the stimulus was viewed.

That was in contrast to other brain areas, where information disappeared entirely within half a second (500 milliseconds).

“This stable representation suggests a neural basis for stable perception over time, despite the changing level of activity,” says psychologist Leon Deouell from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

In other words, this neural region is where we not just notice something but also notice that we’re noticing it. As the visual stimulus changed – a series of images – so did the brain activity recorded by the researchers. Machine learning algorithms then filtered out the noise and spot patterns.

Researchers enlisted 10 epilepsy patients for the study who were already scheduled to have electrodes fitted inside their skulls. These electrodes allow for a more complete measure of brain activity over time, with less guesswork, compared with other brain scanning methods that work externally.

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(Johan Swanepoel/Shutterstock)

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Around 8,000 years ago, our hunter-gatherer ancestors settled in the great floodplain between these two rivers and developed agriculture and animal husbandry, leading many to call the area the “Cradle of Civilization”. From these early city-states – like Eridu, Ur, and Uruk – came the invention of the wheel and the written word. Codified legal systems, sailing boats, beer brewing, and love songs followed, among other inventions. 

And yet, because of the decades of conflict that have plagued modern Iraq, the fact that the Tigris has guarded and shaped our shared human heritage is easily forgotten.

For 10 weeks in 2021, a small team and I traveled roughly 2,000km by boat and overland from the Tigris’ source to where it empties into the Persian Gulf – a journey one advisor told me likely hadn’t been attempted since the Ottoman era. My goal was to chart the river’s historical importance and tell its story through the voices of those who live along its banks, while also investigating the threats to its future. A combination of geo-political instability, poor water management, and climate change has led some to state that this once-mighty river is dying. I hoped our journey would be a reminder of what emerged from this land, and what we would collectively lose if the river that birthed civilization dried up.

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(Image credit: Westend61/Getty Images)

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Prior to the pandemic, the working world already felt to most of us like it was undergoing rapid, unrelenting change — changes in customer preferences, client and employee expectations, and competitive advantages. Covid-19 managed to upend the few things that felt relatively predictable, like where we spent our working hours, how we collaborated with colleagues, and whether or not we bothered to put on real pants each day. Today, leaders across industries are feverishly trying to figure out what the “new normal” needs to look like, which seems to be constantly shifting under their feet.

To stay motivated as we encounter unprecedented levels of uncertainty in every aspect of our lives, we should understand that the human brain simply was not built for this. Knowing what your brain does well — and what it does surprisingly poorly — can give you a much clearer sense of the strategies you need to not just endure but to thrive.

For most of human history, we have been hunter-gatherers, living in groups where individuals had established roles and lives. While sometimes dangerous, life was largely predictable. The brain evolved to be remarkably good at recognizing patterns and building habits, turning very complex sets of behaviors into something we can do on autopilot. (Ever drive home from work and end up in your driveway, with no memory of actually driving home? That’s the kind of thing we’re talking about.)

Given that habits and recognizable patterns are kind of its “thing,” the brain evolved to be uncertainty-averse. When things become less predictable — and therefore less controllable — we experience a strong state of threat. You may already know that threat leads to “fight, freeze, or flight” responses in the brain. You may not know that it also leads to decreases in motivation, focus, agility, cooperative behavior, self-control, sense of purpose and meaning, and overall well-being. In addition, threat creates significant impairments in your working memory: You can’t hold as many ideas in your mind to solve problems, nor can you pull as much information from your long-term memory when you need it. Threats of uncertainty literally make us less capable, because dealing with them is just not something our brains evolved to do.

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Illustration by Daniel Creel

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Thirteen years ago, paleontologist Mario Urbina made a remarkable discovery in the coastal desert of Peru. He had a hunch that it was something really special. But his conclusion was so odd that it took years of excavation and testing to show international scientists that his convictions were right, according to Urbina’s field partner and fellow paleontologist Rodolfo Salas-Gismondi, head of the vertebrate paleontology department at the Museum of Natural History in Lima. They were fossil masses, and what Urbina thought they were: preserved bones from a new species of early whale, dating to 39 million years ago. And, it turns out, this one was a whopper.

“The authors have definitely found something new. This is a really weird, stupendously large, early whale,” says paleobiologist Nicholas Pyenson, the curator of fossil marine mammals at the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History.

This whale relative, named Perucetus colossus—“the colossal whale from Peru”—is pretty darn big. In their new study published today in Nature, the international team of researchers posit that it could be the heaviest animal. Ever. By their estimates, the species would have had a 65-foot skeleton that outweighs the 82-foot skeleton of a blue whale—the world’s current heavyweight champion species—by two to three times, possibly resulting in an overall body weight of between 90 and 370 tons. At the upper range, that’s more than twice as chonky as a blue whale. Further, this ancient giant falls far earlier in history than scientists would expect, changing the known evolutionary timeline for huge whales up by 30 million years.

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A reconstruction of P. colossus shows it in its coastal habitat. The head is an educated guess because a skull has not been found yet. Alberto Gennari

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