James' World 2

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CLIMATEWIRE | Slovenia and Venezuela are the first two countries to lose their last-standing glaciers in a period of climate change induced by people — but they won’t be the last.

Some news outlets reported this month that Venezuela might be the first country in modern times to lose all of its glaciers. However, researchers told E&E News that Slovenia likely claimed the solemn title more than three decades ago.

“The two glacial remnants have not moved, [and] there were no glacial crevasses observed in the last few decades — these characteristics define real glaciers,” Miha Pavšek, who leads ice measurements at Slovenia’s Triglav mountain and Skuta peak with the Anton Melik Geographical Institute, told E&E News.

Melting glaciers are one of the iconic consequences of human-caused climate change, and even Arctic countries like Iceland have lost whole glaciers. But Slovenia and Venezuela appear to be the first countries since the 18th century to lose their last glaciers. It comes as the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change expects 18 to 36 percent of global glacial mass to be lost across the 21st century, due in large part to global warming.

A May post on X, formerly Twitter, by climatologist Maximiliano Herrera drew attention to the decline of La Corona — Venezuela’s last glacier — by citing December measurements from the Universidad de Los Andes showing a remaining area of 0.02 square kilometers.

“The disappearance of all the glaciers in Venezuela is a national tragedy,” Julio César Centeno, a professor at Universidad de Los Andes who studied the glaciers, told E&E News in an email. “It is a warning sign about the avalanche of additional effects that are coming to the country in the short term as a consequence of global warming.”

But Slovenia and Venezuela likely lost their last glaciers years earlier.

There’s no universally accepted point of death for a glacier, and no international organization is recognized as the authority on glacial classification. But Centeno said that “the minimum size for a glacier is 0.1 [square kilometers.]” The United States Geological Survey also uses that threshold and says it’s “the commonly accepted guideline.”

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Severe turbulence on a Singapore Airlines flight from London to Singapore has left a 73-year-old man dead and injured more than 70 people. The incident, although rare, is raising questions about what caused such a serious disruption to the flight — and whether climate change will make the strength and frequency of turbulence on planes worse.

The plane, which departed on 20 May, experienced a sudden drop of around more than 1,800 metres that launched people and objects towards the cabin roof. It is the airline’s first fatal incident in 24 years.

“Severe turbulence is the one that turns you into a projectile,” says atmospheric researcher Paul Williams at Reading University, UK. “For anyone not wearing a seatbelt it would have been a bit like being on a rollercoaster without any restraint in place — it would have been terrifying,” he says.

Nature looks at the science of air turbulence and how climate change will influence it.

What causes turbulence in aeroplanes?

Most flights experience some level of turbulence. Near the ground, strong winds around the airport can cause turbulence as planes take off or land. At higher altitudes, up- and downwards flows of air in storm clouds can cause mild to severe turbulence as planes fly through or near them. “Nobody likes flying through a storm,” says Williams.

Air flows that move upwards over mountain ranges can also create turbulence. “As the air blows over the mountain, the plane gets lifted up and can become turbulent,” says Williams. Moreover, turbulence often occurs on the edges of jet streams, which are strong air currents that circle the globe. Any turbulence that occurs outside of clouds is called “clear air” turbulence. It could take weeks to establish what kind of turbulence caused the Singapore Airlines incident, says Williams. “Provisionally, there was a storm nearby, but also the conditions were right for clear air turbulence — we need to do some more digging before we can say,” he says.

Is climate change making turbulence worse and more frequent?

Climate change is making turbulence more frequent and severe, says atmospheric researcher Jung-Hoon Kim at Seoul National University.

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Valeria Mongelli/Bloomberg via Getty Images

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Leonard Baier is a graphic designer who lives in a small town in Germany. He’s the perfect person to meet at a party because he can always find a topic of conversation. If he goes into a bar alone, he comes out with a handful of new acquaintances. Yet, he also appreciates living alone in a cozy, two-room apartment. There he enjoys “closing the door every now and then and having some peace and quiet,” he says. After long visits with friends, for example, he is happy to be undisturbed for a while.

Baier meets the criteria for ambiversion, a trait in the middle of the continuum between extroversion and introversion. Whereas an introverted person draws most of their energy from being alone, an extroverted person becomes energized from interacting with other people. Introverts are more easily stressed by other people, whereas extroverts thrive in the company of others. But for Baier these dynamics depend on the circumstances: Sometimes he feels comfortable and relaxed in company. Other times people stress him out.

He’s far from the only one. Most people are not exclusively introverted or extroverted. “Ninety percent of people are somewhere in the middle,” says Jens Asendorpf, a personality researcher at Humboldt University of Berlin. People who tend to be extroverted also like to keep to themselves from time to time. “And since everyone needs social contact, introverts also seek interaction with others—just less so,” Asendorpf adds.

In other words, the vast majority of people are probably ambiverts. But it’s hard to clearly separate these categories, says psychologist Scott Barry Kaufman. “There is no magic line that clearly separates ambiversion from introversion and extroversion,” he says.

If you place people on the continuum according to their characteristics, the vast majority are probably in the middle, with fewer toward the extremes. This dimension of human personality is “normally distributed,” as the statistical term goes. There are also many more gradations than just introverted, ambiverted, and extroverted. “You could create even more subcategories—for example, mild extroversion and mild introversion,” Kaufman says.

Ambiversion: The Best of Everything?

Ambiversion combines the worlds of extroversion and introversion: When Baier’s friends spontaneously drop by on a Friday evening and want to take him to a party, he grabs his jacket and sets off. But if he has no plans, that doesn’t bother him either. On the contrary, he enjoys a quiet evening watching a TV series or drawing. “Ambivert people have a more flexible mindset, which can be very useful in everyday life,” Kaufman says.

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